References on Age Factor

Compiled by Takeuchi, O. 2003


Asher, J.J. and R. Garcia 1969. The optimal age to learn a foreign language. Modern Language Journal, 53:5. 334-341.


Bialystok, E. 1997. The structure of age: In search of barriers to second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 13,116-137.

Bialystok, E. and K. Hakuta 1999. Confounded age: Linguistic and cognitive factors in age differences for second language acquisition. In Birdsong, D. (ed.) Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Bialystok, E. and K. Hakuta, 1994. In other words: The science and psychology of second-language acquisition. Basic Books

Bialystok, E., S. Majumder, and M.M. Martin 2003. Developing phonological awareness: Is there a bilingual advantage? Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 27-44.

Birdsong, D. 1992. Ultimate attainment in language acquisition. Language, 68:4, 706-755.

Birdsong, D. 1999. Introduction: Why and why nots of the critical period hypothesis for second language acquisition. In Birdsong, D. Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlibaum.

Bley-Vroman, R.W. 1989. What is the logical problem of foreign language learning. In Gass, S. and J. Schachter (eds.) Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Bley-Vroman, R.W., S.W. Felix, and G.L, Ioup 1988. The accessibility of universal grammar in adult langage learning. Second Language Research, 4:1, 1-32.

Bongaerets, T. 1999. Ultimate attainment in L2 pronunciation: The case of very advanced late L2 learners. In Birdsong, D. (ed.) Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlibaum.

Bongaerts, T., B. Planken, and E. Schils 1995. Can late starters attain a native accent in a foreign language? A test of the critical period hypothesis. In Singleton, D. and Z. Lengyel (eds.) The age factor in second language acquisition. Clevendon: Multilingual Matters.

Bradlow, A.R., D.B.Pisoni, R. Akahane-Yamada, and Y. Tohkura 1997. Training Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/: IV. Some effects of perceptual learning on speech production. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 101:4, 2299-2310.


Coppieters, R. 1987. Competence differences between native and fluent non-native speakers. Language, 63, 544-573.

Cummins, J. 1980. The cross-lingual dimensions of language proficiency: Implications for Bilingual Education and the optimal age issue. TESOL Quarterly, 14:2, 175-187.

Cummins, J. 1981. The role of parimary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education (ed.) Schooling and language minority student: A theoretical framework. Los Angeles: California State Univ..


Davidson, D.J., R.T.Zacks, and F. Ferreira 2003. Age preservation of the syntactic processor in production. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research,, 32:5, 541-566.

DeKeyser, R.M. 2000. The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 499-533.


Emmorey, K., Bellugi, U., Friederici, A., and Horn, P. 1995. Effects of age of acquisition on grammatical sensitivity: Evidence from on-line and off-line tasks. Applied Psycholinguistics, 16, 1-23.


Flege, J.E. 1987. A critical period for learning to pronounce foreign languages? Applied Linguistics, 8:2, 162-177.

Flege, J.E. 1999. Age of learning and second language speech. In Birdsong, D. (ed.) Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Flege, J.E., E.M. Frieda, and T. Nozawa 1997. Amount of native-language (L1) use affects the pronunciation of an L2. Journal of Phonetics, 25, 169-186.

Flege, J.E., J.M.Munro, and I.R.A. Mackay 1995. Factors affecting strength of perceived foreign accent in a second language. Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 97:5, 3125-3134.

Flege, J.E., Yeni-Komshian, G. and Liu, S. 1999. Age constraints on second-language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language , 41, 78-104.

Flege, J.E. and Liu, S. 2001. The effect of experience on adults' acquisition of a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23, 527-552.

藤永 保 『ことばはどこで育つか』 東京:大修館


Garcia Mayo, M.P. and M.L. Garcia lecumberri (eds.) 2003. Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Guion, S.G., Flege, J.E., Liu, S.H., and Yeni-Komshian, G.H. 2000. Age of learning effects on the duration of sentences produced in a second language. Applied Pscyholinguistics, 21, 205-228.


Hahne, A. 2001. What's different in second-language processing? Evidence from Event-related brain potentials. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 30:3, 251-266.

Harley, B. and D. Hart 1997. Language aptitude and second language proficiency in classroom learners of different starting ages. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,19,379-400.

Harley, B., J. Howard, and D. Hart 1995. Second language processing at different ages: Do younger learners pay more attention to prosodic cues to sentence structure? Language Learning, 45:1, 43-71.

Hyltenstam, K. and N. Abrahamsson 2003. Maturation constraints in SLA. In Doughty, C.J. and M.H. Long (eds.) The handbook of second language acquisiton. Oxford: Blackwell.


Ioup, G. 1989. Immigrant children who have failed to acquire native English. In Gass, S., C. Madden, D. Preston, and L. Selinker (eds.) Variation in second language acquisition. New York: Multilingual Matters.

Ioup, G., E. Boustagui, M. El Tigi, and M. Moselle 1994. Reexamining the critical period hypothesis: A case study of successful adult SLA in a naturalistic Environment. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16:1, 73-98.


Jacobs, B. 1988. Neurobiological differentiation of primary and secondary language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 10:3, 303-337.

Johnson, J. and E. Newport 1989. Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of ESL. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 60-99.

Johnson, J. and E. Newport 1991. Critical period effects on universal properties of language: The status of subjacency in the acquisition of a second language. Cognition, 39, 215-258.


Kim, K.H.S., N.R. Relkin, K.M. Lee, and J. Hirsch 1997. Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages. Nature, 388, 171-174.

Krashen, S.D. 1973. Lateralization, language learning and the critical period: Some new evidence. Language Learning, 23, 63-74.

Krashen, S.D. and N. Kiss 1996. Notes on a polyglot: Kato Lomb. System, 24:2, 207-210.


Lamendella, J. 1977. General principles of neurofunctional organization and their manifestations in primary and non-primary language acquisition. Language Learning,27, 155-196.

Lenneberg, E. 1967. Biological foundation of language. New York: John Wiley.

Long, M. 1990. Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251-285.


Magite, E. 1987. Further evidence for the optimal age hypothesis in second language learning. In Lantolf, J.P. and Labarca, A. (eds.) Research in second language learning: Focus on the classroom. (Delaware Symposium 6) Norwood: Ablex.

Marinova-Todd, S., D. Bradford Marshall, and C.E. Snow 2000. Three misconceptions about age and L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly, 34:1, 9-34.

Martohardjono, G. and S. Flynn 1995. Is there an age-factor for Universal Grammar? In Singleton, D. and Z. Lengyel (eds.) The age factor in second language acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Mayberry, R.I. and E. Lock 2003. Age constraints on first versus second language acquisition: Evidence for linguistic plasticity and epigenesis. Brain and Language, 87, 369-384.

Moyer, A. 1999. Ultimate attainment in L2 phonology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 251-286.

Moyer, A. 2004. Age, accent, and experience in second language acquisition: An integrated approach to critical period inquiry. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.


Neufeld, G.G. 1978. On the acquisition of prosodic and articulatory features in adult language learning. Canadian Modern Language Review, 34, 163-174.

Neufeld, G.G. 1979. Towards a theory of language learning ability. Language Learning, 29:2, 227-241.

Neufeld, G.G. 1980. On the adult's ability to acquire phonology. TESOL Quarterly, 14:3, 285-298.

Newport, E. 1990. Maturational constraints on language learning. Cognitive Science, 14, 11-28.

Nikolov, M. 2000. The critical period hypothesis reconsidered: Successful adult learners of Hungarian and English. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 39, 109-124.

Novoa, L., D. Fein, and L.K. Obler 1988. Talent in foreign languages: A case study. In Obler, L. and D. Fein (eds.) The exceptional brain: Neuropsychology of talent and special abilities. New York: Builford Press.


Obler, L.K. 1989. Exceptional second language learners. In Gass, S., C. Madden, D. Preston, and L. Selinker (eds.) Variation in second language acquisition. New York: Multilingual Matters.

Obler, L. B. Fein, M. Nicholas, and M. Albert 1991. Auditory comprehension and age: Decline in syntactic processing. Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 433-452.

Oyama, S. 1976. A sensitive period in the acquisition of a non-native phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5, 261-285.

Oyama, S. 1978. The sensitive period and comprehension of speech. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 6, 1-17.


Patkowski, M. 1980. The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning, 30, 449-472.

Patkowski, M.S. 1990. Age and accent in a second language: A reply to James Emil Flege. Applied Linguistics, 11:1, 73-89.

Penfield, W. and L. Roberts 1959. Speech and brain mechanism. New York: Atheneum.

Pinker, S. 1994. The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York: Morrow.

Pinker, S. 1999. Words and Rules: The ingredients of language. New York: Perennial.

Piske, T., I.R.A. MacKay, and J.E. Flege 2001. Factors affecting degree of foreign accent in an L2: A review. Journal of Phonetics, 29, 191-215.

Purcell, E. and Suter, R. 1980. Predictors of pronunciation accuracy: A reexamination. Language Learning , 30, 271-287.


Schachter, J. 1990. On the issue of completeness in second language acquisition. Second Language Research,6,93-124.

Schneiderman, E.I. and C. Desmarais 1988. The talented language learner: Some preliminary findings. Second Language Research, 4:2, 91-109.

Scovel, T. 1988. A time to speak: A psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. Rowley: Newbury House.

Seliger, H.W. 1979. Implications of a multiple critical periods hypothesis for second language learning. In Ritchie, W.C. (ed.) Second language research: Issues and implications. New York: Academic Press.

Selinker, L. 1972. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-231.

Slavoff, G. and Johnson, J.S. 1995. The effects of age on the rate of learning a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition , 17, 1-16.

Smith, N. and Tsimpli, I.-M. 1995. The mind of a savant Oxford: Basil Blackwell. (『ある言語天才の頭脳:言語学習と心のモジュール性』 東京:新曜社)

Snow, C. and M. Hoefnagel-Hohle 1977. Age differences in the pronunciation of foreign sounds. Language and Speech, 40:4 357-365.

Snow, C. and M. Hoefnagel-Hohle 1978. The critical age for language acquisition: Evidence from second language learning. Child Development, 49, 1114-11128.

Sorace, A. 1993. Incomplete vs. divergent representations of unaccusativiy in non-native grammars of Italian. Second Language Research, 9,22-47.


Tahta, S., M.Wood, and K. Loewenthal 1981. Age changes in the ability to replicate foreign pronunciation and intonation. Language and Speech, 24:4, 363-372.

竹内 理 2003. 『より良い外国語学習法を求めて−外国語学習成功者の研究』(第二章 「12才からでは遅すぎるのか)東京:松柏社


内田伸子 1997. 第二言語学習に及ぼす成熟的制約の影響 『日本語学』10, 33-43

内田伸子 1999. 『発達心理学:ことばの獲得と教育』東京:岩波書店

内田伸子 1999. 第2言語学習のいける成熟的制約 『ことばの獲得』京都:ミネルヴァ書房


Weber-Fox, C. and H.J. Neville 1999. Functional neural subsystems are differentially affected by delays in second language immersion: ERP and behavioral evidence in bilinguals. In Birdsong, D. (ed.) Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.

West, M. 1959. At what age should language study begin? ELT Journal, 14, 21-26.

White, L. and F. Genesee 1996. How native is near-native? The issue of ultimate attainment in adult second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 12:3, 233-265.

Wuillemin, D. and B. Richardson 1994. Right hemisphere involvement in processing later-learned languages in multilinguals. Brain and Language, 46, 620-636.


Yamada (-Akahane), R. 1993. Effects of extended training on /r/ and/l/ identification by native speakers of Japanese. Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 93, 2391(A).

山田恒夫 1999. 外国語音声学習と年齢:年齢なんて関係ない?! 『日本音響学会誌』55:1, 38-44.


(C) 2001 TAKEUCHI, O.
First Released: 01/05/01
Last Revised: 07/26/04